Where to Recycle Catalytic Converters in Chicago Area

Exhaust emission ensure device

A trilateral chemical change converter happening a gasoline-powered 1996 Dodge Ram

Simulation of flow inside a chemical process converter

A catalytic converter is an exhaust emission control device that converts toxic gases and pollutants in exhaust brag from an national combustion engine into less-toxic pollutants away catalyzing a redox reaction. Catalytic converters are unremarkably ill-used with inward burning engines fueled by gasolene or diesel, including lean-burn engines, and sometimes on kerosene heaters and stoves.

The first widespread introduction of chemical change converters was in the USA automobile commercialise. To comply with the U.S. Environmental Protection Means's stricter rule of exhaust emissions, most gasoline-powered vehicles protrusive with the 1975 mock up year are prepared with catalytic converters.^{[1] [2] [3] [4]} These "two-way" converters combine oxygen with carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (C_nH_n) to produce carbonic acid gas (CO₂) and water (H₂O). In 1981, two-part catalytic converters were rendered superannuated aside "three-way" converters that also tighten oxides of nitrogen (NO_x );^[1] however, ii-way converters are calm in use for lean-burn engines. This is because triangular-converters postulate either racy or stoichiometric combustion to with success reduce NO_x .

Although catalytic converters are most commonly applied to exhaust systems in automobiles, they are also used on electrical generators, forklifts, minelaying equipment, trucks, buses, locomotives, motorcycles, and along ships. They are even secondhand on roughly wood stoves to see to it emissions.^[5] This is usually in response to government regulation, either through direct environmental regulation operating room through and through health and safety regulations.

History [edit]

Catalytic converter prototypes were freshman designed in France at the end of the 19th century, when only few cardinal "oil cars" were on the roads; these prototypes had an inert crucial coated with platinum, iridium, and Pd, sealed into a double auriferous piston chamber.^[6]

A few decades later, a catalytic converter was patented by Prince Eugene of Savoy Houdry, a French mechanical engineer and skillful in chemical change oil refining,^[7] who moved to the United States of America in 1930. When the results of early studies of smogginess in City of the Angels were published, Houdry became concerned about the role of smokestack exhaust and automobile exhaust in air contamination and founded a company known as Oxy-Accelerator. Houdry first highly-developed catalytic converters for smokestacks known as "cats" for short, and later developed chemical process converters for warehouse forklifts that victimized miserable grade, lead-free gasoline.^[8] In the middle-1950s, he began research to develop catalytic converters for gas engines used on cars. Helium was awarded United States Patent 2,742,437 for his work.^[9]

Chemical process converters were further developed by a series of engineers including Carl D. Keith, Whoremaster J. Mooney, Antonio Eleazar, and Phillip Messina at Engelhard Corporation,^{[10] [11]} creating the first production catalytic converter in 1973.^{[12] [ unreliable reference? ]}

The first widespread introduction of catalytic converters was in the Married States automobile market. To comply with the U.S. State of affairs Tribute Agency's new regulation of tucker emissions, most gasoline-powered vehicles start with the 1975 model year are equipped with catalytic converters. These "ii-path" converters combined oxygen with carbon monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbons (C_nH_n) to produce carbonic acid gas (CO₂) and water (H₂O).^{[1] [2] [3] [4]} These stringent emission verify regulations forced the remotion of the antiknock agent lead tetraethyl from automotive petrol, to reduce lead in the air. Lead story is a catalyst poisonous substance and would effectively destroy a catalytic convertor by coating the catalyst's coat. Requiring the removal of lead allowed the use of chemical action converters to meet the other discharge standards in the regulations.^[13]

William C. Pfefferle developed a catalytic combustor for gas turbines in the early 1970s, allowing combustion without significant formation of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide.^{[14] [15]}

Construction [edit]

Cutaway model of a metal-core converter

The chemical process convertor's construction is as follows:

1. The accelerator support or substrate. For motor vehicle catalytic converters, the sum is usually a ceramic monolith that has a honeycomb structure (usually square, not hexagonal). (Prior to the mid 1980s, the catalyst material was deposited on a packed bed of alumina pellets in premature GM applications.) Metallic enhancer monoliths made of Kanthal (FeCrAl)^[16] are used in applications where particularly high wake resistance is obligatory.^[16] The substrate is structured to bring out a large surface field. The cordierite ceramic substrate used in most catalytic converters was invented by Rodney Bagley, Irwin Lachman, and Ronald Clive Staples Lewis at Corning Glass, for which they were inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Renown in 2002.^[1]
2. The washcoat. A washcoat is a postman for the catalytic materials and is used to disperse the materials over a large surface area. Alumina, titania, silicon dioxide, surgery a mixture of silica and aluminium oxide can constitute utilised. The catalytic materials are suspended in the washcoat prior to applying to the CORE. Washcoat materials are selected to spring a rough, irregular surface, which increases the surface area compared to the smooth aerofoil of the bare substrate.^[17]
3. Ceria or ceria-zirconium dioxide. These oxides are mainly added American Samoa O storage promoters.^[18]
4. The catalyst itself is most often a mix of precious metals, mostly from the platinum group. Platinum is the most active catalyst and is widely put-upon, but is not suitable for all applications because of unwanted additional reactions and high cost. Palladium and atomic number 45 are deuce other precious metals used. Rhodium is used as a reduction catalyst, palladium is used as an oxidation catalyst, and platinum is old some for reduction and oxidization. Ce, iron, manganese, and Ni are also used, although for each one has limitations. Nickel is not legal for use up in the European Join because of its chemical reaction with carbon monoxide into toxic nickel tetracarbonyl.^{[ mention needed ]} Copper can be used everywhere except Japan.^{[ clarification needed ]}

Upon failure, a chemical process converter backside be recycled into chip. The precious metals inside the convertor, including Pt, atomic number 46, and atomic number 45, are extracted.

Arrangement of catalytic converters [edit]

Catalytic converters require a temperature of 400 °C (752 °F) to operate effectively. Therefore, they are placed as close to the engine as possible, or unmatchable or more smaller catalytic converters (called "pre-cats") are placed immediately after the exhaust manifold.

Types [edit]

Nonpartisan [cut]

A 2-room (surgery "oxidation", sometimes called an "oxi-guy") catalytic converter has two simultaneous tasks:

1. Oxidisation of CO to carbon dioxide: 2 CO + O₂ → 2 CO₂
2. Oxidization of hydrocarbons (unburnt and partially burned fuel) to carbon dioxide and water: C_xH_2x+2 + [(3x+1)/2] O₂ → x CO₂ + (x+1) H₂O (a combustion reaction)

This type of catalytic converter is widely used along diesel engines to reduce hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. They were besides used on gasoline engines in North American nation- and Canadian-grocery automobiles until 1981. Because of their unfitness to control oxides of N, they were superseded by three-way converters.

Three-way [edit]

Three-way catalytic converters have the additional advantage of controlling the emission of atomic number 7 oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂) (both together shortened with NO_x and non to be confused with nitrous oxide (N₂O)), which are precursors to acid rain and smog.^[19]

Since 1981, "three-way" (oxidation-reduction) catalytic converters consume been used in vehicle emanation see to it systems in the United States and Canada; many other countries have also adopted stringent vehicle emission regulations that in force deman three-way converters on petrol-powered vehicles. The reduction and oxidation catalysts are typically contained in a common housing; however, in some instances, they may be housed separately. A three-way catalytic convertor has three simultaneous tasks:^[19]

Reduction of nitrogen oxides to N (N₂)

Oxidisation of carbon paper, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide gas to carbon dioxide

• ${\displaystyle {\text{C}}+{\textbook{O}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,{\school tex{Cobalt}}_{2}}$
• ${\displaystyle {\text{CO}}+{\frac {1}{2}}{\text{O}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,{\text{CO}}_{2}}$
• ${\displaystyle a\,{\text edition{C}}_{x}{\text{H}}_{y}+b\,{\text{O}}_{2}\,\rightarrow \,c\,{\textbook{Atomic number 27}}_{2}+d\,{\text{H}}_{2}{\text{O}}\qquad a,\,b,\,c,\,d,\,x,\,y\in \mathbb {Z} }$

These cardinal reactions take plac most efficiently when the catalytic convertor receives wash up from an engine running slightly above the ratio point. For petrol combustion, this ratio is between 14.6 and 14.8 parts air to one part fire, aside weight. The ratio for autogas (or liquefied petroleum gas LPG), natural gas, and ethanol fuels can vary significantly for apiece, notably so with oxygenated Beaver State alcoholic beverage based fuels, with e85 requiring approximately 34% many fuel, requiring modified fuel system tuning and components when using those fuels. In the main, engines fitted with 3-way of life chemical change converters are equipped with a processed closed-loop feedback fire injection arrangement using one or more oxygen sensors,^{[ quotation needed ]} though early in the deployment of three-way converters, carburetors equipped with feedback mixture mastery were secondhand.

Many-sided converters are effective when the engine is operated within a narrow dance orchestra of air-fire ratios near the stoichiometric point, such that the exhaust throttle composition oscillates between rich (excess fuel) and lean (excess oxygen). Conversion efficiency falls very rapidly when the engine is operated outside of this band. Under lean railway locomotive military operation, the exhaust contains unnecessary oxygen, and the reduction of None_x is not fortunate. Under rich conditions, the overabundance fuel consumes all of the usable oxygen antecedent to the catalyst, departure just oxygen stored in the accelerator available for the oxidation social occasion.

Shuttered-loop engine control systems are necessary for actual operation of three-agency chemical change converters because of the continuous balancing necessary for effective NO_x reduction and HC oxidization. The control system is attached to prevent the NO_x reduction catalyst from becoming fully oxidized, yet refill the oxygen storage material so that its function as an oxidation accelerator is preserved.

Three-way catalytic converters can store oxygen from the exhaust gas stream, ordinarily when the melodic line–fire ratio goes lean.^[20] When sufficient oxygen is non available from the wash up stream, the stored oxygen is released and consumed (see Ce(IV) oxide). A lack of sufficient oxygen occurs either when oxygen plagiarized from NO_x reduction is unavailable OR when certain maneuvers such as thorny acceleration enrich the mixture beyond the ability of the converter to supply oxygen.

Unwanted reactions [edit]

Unwanted reactions result in the formation of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, which poison catalysts. Nickel or manganese is sometimes added to the washcoat to limit hydrogen-sulphide emissions.^{[ citation needed ]} S-free or small-sulfur fuels eliminate surgery minimize problems with hydrogen sulfide.

Diesel engines [edit]

For compaction-firing (i.e., diesel) engines, the most commonly used chemical process converter is the Rudolf Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC). DOCs contain palladium and/or platinum supported on aluminium oxide. This accelerator converts particulate (PM), hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide and water. These converters oft operate at 90 percent efficiency, virtually eliminating diesel olfactory sensation and helping thin visible particulates. These catalysts are ineffective for NO_x , so No more_x emissions from diesel engines are restrained by eat up gas recirculation (EGR).

In 2010, nearly light diesel manufacturers in the U.S. added chemical change systems to their vehicles to meet federal emissions requirements. Two techniques take up been developed for the chemical process reduction of Zero_x emissions under wizened exhaust conditions, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and the No_x adsorber.

Instead of precious metallic element-containing Nobelium_x absorbers, most manufacturers selected fundament-metal SCR systems that use a reagent such every bit ammonia to reduce the NO_x into N and water.^[21] Ammonia is supplied to the catalyst system of rules by the injection of carbamide into the exhaust, which then undergoes thermal vector decomposition and hydrolysis into ammonia water. The urea solution is also referred to as diesel exhaust mobile (DEF).

Diesel consume contains comparatively high levels of particulate matter matter. Catalytic converters remove only 20–40% of PM so particulates are cleaned ahead by a soot trap or diesel particulate matter filter (DPF). In the U.S., all on-road light, medium, and heavy diesel-power-driven vehicles built after 1 January 2007, are subject to diesel particulate emission limits, so are equipped with a 2-way catalytic converter and a diesel particulate matter filter.^{[ credit needed ]} As eternal as the engine was manufactured ahead 1 January 2007, the vehicle is not required to receive the DPF organisation.^{[ citation needed ]} This led to an inventory runup by engine manufacturers in late 2006 so they could continue selling pre-DPF vehicles well into 2007.^[22]

Spindly-burn spark-ignition engines [edit]

For lean-burn spark-kindling engines, an oxidisation catalyst is used in the same manner as in a diesel engine. Emissions from lean burn spark ignition engines are very synonymous to emissions from a diesel compressing ignition locomotive engine.

Facility [cut]

Many vehicles throw a uncommunicative-coupled chemical change converter set near the engine's run through multiple. The converter heats up promptly, due to its exposure to the very hot exhaust gases, enabling it to abbreviate undesirable emissions during the engine warm-up period. This is achieved away burning off the unnecessary hydrocarbons which result from the excess-rich intermixture needful for a cold showtime.

When catalytic converters were first introduced, most vehicles used carburetors that provided a relatively rich air-fuel ratio. Oxygen (O₂) levels in the exhaust stream were therefore generally insufficient for the chemical process reaction to come about efficiently. Most designs of the time therefore enclosed secondary tune injection, which injected air into the exhaust teem. This increased the available atomic number 8, allowing the catalyst to function as intended.

Some three-party chemical change converter systems have air injection systems with the send injected betwixt the first (NO_x decrease) and second (HC and CO oxidation) stages of the convertor. As in two-way of life converters, this injected tune provides oxygen for the oxidation reactions. An upriver air injection point, ahead of the catalytic converter, is besides sometimes present to provide extra oxygen only during the railway locomotive nigh up full stop. This causes unburned fuel to ignite in the exhaust pathway, thereby preventing it arrival the catalytic converter at all. This technique reduces the engine runtime needed for the catalytic convertor to accomplish its "alight-off" or operating temperature.

All but newer vehicles have electronic fire injection systems, and exercise not require transmit injection systems in their exhausts. Instead, they provide a precisely controlled air-fuel mixture that quickly and continually cycles betwixt lean and rich combustion. O sensors monitor the exhaust oxygen self-satisfied in front and after the catalytic converter, and the engine restraint unit uses this information to adjust the fuel injection sol American Samoa to prevent the first (NO_x reducing) catalyst from becoming oxygen-loaded, while at the same time ensuring the second (HC and CO oxidation) catalyst is sufficiently oxygen-saturated.

Damage [edit]

Accelerator poisoning occurs when the chemical action converter is exposed to exhaust containing substances that coat the operative surfaces, so that they cannot contact and respond with the exhaust. The most notable contamination is lead, so vehicles equipped with catalytic converters can run solitary along unleaded fuel. Unusual common catalyst poisons include sulfur, Mn (originating chiefly from the petrol additive MMT), and atomic number 14, which can come in the exhaust stream if the engine has a making water that allows coolant into the combustion chamber. Morning star is some other catalyst contaminant. Although phosphorus is no longer used in gasoline, it (and zinc, another broken-level catalyst contaminant) was widely misused in locomotive engine oil antiwear additives such Eastern Samoa zinc dithiophosphate (ZDDP). Beginning in 2004, a limit of phosphorus concentration in engine oils was adopted in the API SM and ILSAC GF-4 specifications.

Contingent the contaminant, catalyst poisoning can sometimes exist reversed by running the locomotive engine under a very heavy load for an extensive period of time.^{[ citation needed ]} The raised exhaust temperature can sometimes evaporate or sublimate the contaminant, removing it from the catalytic surface.^{[ quote needed ]} However, removal of lead deposits in this manner is usually not possible because of lead's high boil.^{[ credit needed ]}

Any condition that causes abnormally treble levels of unburned hydrocarbons (cutting or partially burnt fire or oils) to reach the converter will tend to importantly elevate its temperature, bringing the risk of a meltdown of the substrate and resultant catalytic deactivation and severe exhaust restriction. These conditions include failure of the upstream components of the exhaust system (multiplex/header assembly and associated clamps convincible to rust/erosion and/or jade e.g. the exhaust multiplex splintering after repeated heat cycling), ignition arrangement e.g. coil packs and/or primary ignition components (e.g. distributor cap, wires, ignition coil and spark plugs) and/or hurt fuel system components (fuel injectors, fuel pressure regulator, and related to sensors). Oil and/or coolant leaks, perhaps caused by a head gasket making water, backside likewise cause high unburned hydrocarbons.

Regulations [edit]

Emissions regulations vary well from jurisdiction to legal power. Most automobile Muriel Sarah Spark-ignition engines in North America have been fitted with chemical change converters since 1975,^{[1] [2] [3] [4]} and the technology used in not-automotive applications is generally based on automotive engineering. In many jurisdictions, it is unlawful to remove or disable a catalytic converter for any reason differently its direct and immediate replacement. Nevertheless, some vehicle owners remove or "gut" the chemical change converter on their fomite.^{[23] [24]} In such cases, the converter may be replaced by a welded-in section of cut-and-dried pipe or a flanged "test pipe", ostensibly meant to retard if the converter is clogged by comparing how the engine runs with and without the convertor. This facilitates temporary reinstallation of the convertor in tell to pass an discharge test.^[25]

In the U.S. government, it is a violation of Section 203(a)(3)(A) of the 1990 revised Clean Aura Playact for a fomite repair shop to remove a converter from a vehicle, or cause a converter to embody removed from a vehicle, except in order to replace it with other converter,^[26] and Section 203(a)(3)(B) makes information technology illegal for any person to sell or to install whatsoever part that would bypass, defeat, or generate inoperative any emission control organisation, device, OR design element. Vehicles without up chemical action converters generally fail emission inspections. The automotive aftermarket supplies high-flow converters for vehicles with upgraded engines, operating theatre whose owners prefer an exhaust organisation with larger-than-stock capacity.^[27]

Effect on exhaust flow [edit]

Faulty catalytic converters atomic number 3 well as undamaged early types of converters privy restrict the flow of exhaust, which negatively affects vehicle carrying into action and fuel economy.^[23] Modern catalytic converters ut non significantly restrict exhaust flow. A 2006 test on a 1999 Honda Civic, for example, showed that removing the stock catalytic converter reticulate only a 3% increase in upper limit horsepower; a new metallic core converter only cost the car 1% horsepower, compared to atomic number 102 converter.^[25]

Dangers [cut]

Carburetors connected pre-1981 vehicles without feedback fuel-air mixed bag restraint could easily provide too much fire to the engine, which could cause the chemical action converter to overheat and potentially ignite flammable materials under the car.^[28]

Warm-up time period [edit]

Vehicles fitted with catalytic converters breathe most of their total pollution during the first basketball team minutes of engine cognitive operation; e.g., before the catalytic converter has warmed up sufficiently to cost full in effect.^[29]

In the early 2000s information technology became common to place the accelerator converter right next to the exhaust manifold, close to the engine, for much faster warm-up. In 1995, Alpina introduced an electrically het up catalyst. Titled "E-African te," it was victimised in Alpina's B12 5,7 E-KAT supported the BMW 750i.^[30] Heating coils inside the chemical change converter assemblies are electrified antimonopoly after the locomotive engine is started, delivery the catalyst up to operative temperature very chop-chop to qualify the vehicle for humiliated emanation vehicle (LEV) designation.^[31] BMW later o introduced the same heated accelerator, developed jointly by Emitec, Alpina, and BMW,^[30] in its 750i in 1999.^[31]

Some vehicles contain a pre-cat, a small catalytic converter upriver of the main catalytic converter which heats up faster on vehicle start up, reducing the emissions associated with cold starts. A pre-cat is most unremarkably misused by an auto maker when trying to attain the Extremist Sir David Low Emissions Vehicle (ULEV) military rank, such A happening the Toyota MR2 Roadster.^[32]

Environmental impact [edit]

Catalytic converters have proven to be reliable and effective in reducing noxious tailpipe emissions. Nonetheless, they also have some shortcomings in use, and also adverse environmental impacts in production:

• An engine equipt with a cardinal-way accelerator must run at the stoichiometric point, which means more fire is consumed than in a lean-burn engine. This agency approximately 10% many CO₂ emissions from the fomite.
• Catalytic converter output requires palladium or platinum; part of the world provision of these preciously metals is produced come on Norilsk, Russia, where the industriousness (among others) has caused Norilsk to follow added to Time mag's list of about-polluted places.^[33]
• The extreme high temperature of the converters themselves,^[34] can cause wildfires, especially in dry areas.^{[35] [36] [37]}

Theft [edit]

Because of the external location and the use of valuable cute metals including platinum, palladium and rhodium, catalytic converters are a target for thieves. The job is especially common among late-modeling trucks and SUVs, because of their high ground clearance and easily removed go off-on catalytic converters. Welded-on converters are also at risk of theft, as they can be easily cut off.^{[38] [39] [40]} Pipecutters are a great deal used to restfully remove the convertor^{[41] [42]} but other tools such atomic number 3 a portable reciprocating saw commode damage other components of the car, such equally the alternator, wiring operating room fuel lines, with possibly dangerous consequences. Rising metal prices in the U.S. during the 2000s commodities boom led to a significant increase in converter theft. A catalytic converter can be more $1,000 to supplant, much if the vehicle is damaged during the theft.^{[43] [44] [45]}

From 2019–2020, thieves in the United Realm were targeting older-model hybrid cars which have more precious metals than newer vehicles—sometimes worth more than the respect of the car—leading to scarcity and long delays in replacing them.^[46]

In 2021 a drift emerged in the Advocate Republic of Belgian Congo where catalytic converters were stolen for use in do drugs production.^[47]

Diagnostics [blue-pencil]

Various jurisdictions instantly require on-board diagnostics to Monitor the function and condition of the emissions-control system, including the catalytic convertor. Vehicles equipped with OBD-II diagnostic systems are designed to lively the device driver to a misfire condition by means of illuminating the "check engine" light on the dashboard, Oregon flashing it if the current misfire conditions are bad enough to potentially damage the catalytic converter.^{[ citation needed ]}

Along-board designation systems drive several forms.

Temperature sensors are used for two purposes. The prototypic is as a warning scheme, typically on 2-means catalytic converters such as are stillness sometimes old on LPG forklifts. The function of the detector is to warn of catalytic converter temperature above the safe limit of 750 °C (1,380 °F). Modern catalytic-convertor designs are not as susceptible to temperature damage and can withstand sustained temperatures of 900 °C (1,650 °F).^{[ citation needed ]} Temperature sensors are also accustomed monitor catalyst functioning: usually two sensors wish be fitted, with one before the catalyst and one after to monitor lizard the temperature rise over the chemical action-converter sum.^{[ citation necessary ]}

The O sensor is the cornerston of the closed-loop control scheme connected a spark-enkindled rich-cauterise railway locomotive; nonetheless, it is also used for diagnostics. In vehicles with OBD Cardinal, a second oxygen sensor is fitted aft the catalytic converter to monitor the O₂ levels. The O₂ levels are monitored to control the efficiency of the burn process. The on-board computer makes comparisons between the readings of the two sensors. The readings are taken by voltage measurements. If both sensors express the same output or the rear O₂ is "shift", the computer recognizes that the chemical process converter either is not functioning or has been removed, and will maneuver a malfunction indicator lamp and affect engine public presentation. Simpleton "oxygen sensor simulators" have been developed to circumvent this problem past simulating the deepen across the catalytic convertor with plans and pre-assembled devices available on the Net. Although these are not legal for on-traveling utilize, they have been used with mixed results.^[48] Similar devices apply an offset to the sensor signals, allowing the engine to run a more fire-economical lean burn that Crataegus oxycantha, however, damage the engine operating room the catalytic converter.^[49]

No_x sensors are extremely expensive and are in general used only when a compression-ignition engine is fitted with a discriminating chemical action-reduction (SCR) convertor, or a NO_x absorber in a feedback system. When fitted to an SCR system, there may be incomparable OR two sensors. When one sensor is fitted IT wish be pre-catalyst; when 2 are fitted, the second combined testament be post-catalyst. They are used for the same reasons and in the same manner American Samoa an oxygen detector; the only deviation is the substance being monitored.^{[ citation needed ]}

Ascertain also [redact]

• Catalytic heater
• Cerium(Troika) oxide
• NO_x adsorber
• Roadway air dispersion modeling

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42. ^ "Cotati police force bust chemical process converter thievery suspects". 29 November 2019.
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44. ^ Johnson, Alex (12 February 2008). "Stolen in 60 Seconds: The Treasure in Your Car — As Precious Metals Prices Soar, Catalytic Converters Are Targets for Thieves". NBC News . Retrieved 7 January 2011.
45. ^ "Converters Taken past Car Lot Thieves". PoconoNews. 2 July 2009.
46. ^ "Catalytic converter theft: loan-blend car owners face insurance nightmare". the Guardian. 1 February 2020.
47. ^ Nyemba, Benoit (27 September 2021). "Car-exhaust dose craze alarms Congou's superior". Reuters . Retrieved 8 October 2021.
48. ^ "Settlement Involves Illegal Emission Operate 'Defeat Devices' Sold for Autos". 1 June 2007.
49. ^ "Check Engine Lights Come on for a Reason". Concord Monitor. 12 January 2003.

Promote reading [edit]

• Keith, C. D., et al. U.S. Patent 3,441,381: "Apparatus for purifying exhaust gases of an internal burning engine". 29 April 1969
• Lachman, I. M. et al.. U.S. Patent 3,885,977: "Anisotropic Cordierite Monolith" (Ceramic substrate). 5 Nov 1973
• Charles Stuart H. Bailey. U.S. Patent 4,094,645: "Compounding muffler and catalytic converter having low backpressure". 13 June 1978
• Jacques Charles H. Bailey. U.S. Evident 4,250,146: '"Caseless monolithic catalytic converter". 10 Feb 1981
• Srinivasan Gopalakrishnan. GB 2397782 : "Serve And Synthesizer For Molecular Engineering of Materials". 13 Butt against 2002.

Where to Recycle Catalytic Converters in Chicago Area

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_converter

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